Lay your first board through the room, next to board A. A very useful, inexpensive tool. Whether youâre planning to replace an existing floor or not, a hump in a subfloor requires removing the problem before it worsens. Each new joist should be checked by laying it on a level surface, on its narrow edge, before purchasing. 215. The longer the span of the repair, the more it should overlap the old joist. Home Renovation Home Improvement Projects Home Projects Garage Atelier Foundation Repair Diy Home Repair Basement Remodeling Remodeling Ideas ⦠Our demonstration photos below shows a standard chalk line, the chalk refill pot and how to "ping" a line. Replacing joists costs around $100 to $300 for each new joist. He studied architecture at Taft Junior College. Fixing Broken, Cracked, Sagging Floor Joists. Cut several 2x6 boards to nail on under the newly exposed floor area. It is also possible to repair and replace sections of joists, in situ, without disturbing the entire floor. Grab your copy now for all the DIY help you need right at your finger tips! Bowing or warping of floor boards can occur for several reasons. eval(ez_write_tag([[468,60],'diydoctor_org_uk-under_second_paragraph','ezslot_21',691,'0','0']));Floors in older properties are very often out of level. Levelling Floor Joists â How to Level an Old Floor, General Building, Self Build and Renovation, Planning Regs, Project Management and Safety, Let us help you find a tradesman local to you, Laying Floor Boards â How to Cut and Fit Floor Boarding, How to Fill Gaps in Floorboards and Seal Floorboards to Prevent Draughts and Heat Loss, How to Stop Creaking Floors and Creaking Stairs â Why Floorboards and Stairs can Creak and What you can do Stop the Noise, How to Use a Chalk Line to Mark a Straight and level Line on a Wall, Floor or Other Surface to use as a Guide, How To Use A Chalk Line When Laying Floorboards. This job can run you $1,000 and $5,000, depending on the extent of the job. For second floor joists, remove 24-inch-wide strips of the drywall, plaster or paneling from the first floor ceiling to install rows of blocking. Then a string line can be fixed to the top of these two, new joists, giving you the level for the joists in between. Floor joists and posts support the flooring, and damage to them is the most common cause of a sagging floor. Basement Renovations Home Renovation Home Remodeling Basement Ideas Home Improvement Projects Home Projects Squeaky Floors Foundation Repair Home Fix. Remember to make allowance for the tongue on each board when you mark. Deteriorating floor joists, posts, or beams can be caused by termite infestation, water damage, or dry rot. Repair Sagging, Cracked or Broken Floor Framing. If only a few joists are rotted primarily at the bottom, they can be repaired using a process known as sistering -- after the rot is cleaned away and the timber treated to prevent more problems, a new joist is laid beside the old one and fastened to it. Over the years they bow and make life difficult when fitting new wardrobes or showers etc. Access the area below the floor joists through the crawlspace door. If water has seeped into the boards, they may swell against one another, which can cause the bow⦠A hump in ⦠Mark the lower edge of each joist at the midpoint to establish a line for installing the blocks. This is to make sure you have a sensible cut at each end and not a full board at one end and a ½ inch cut at the other. Average costs and comments from CostHelper's team of professional journalists and community of users. Then set new joists (same height as existing ones) alongside the old. I went into the crawlspace with a level and that joist is bowed up about 3/4" to 1" compared to the other joists on either side of it. Pry the floor joist from the subfloor with the back of your hammer. How to repair squeaky floors caused by lack of bridging, damaged floor joists, separation of sub-floor from joists, twisted, bowed, split or warped floor boards and floor ⦠It is important that the boards run at right angles to the joists regardless of the shape of the room and the first thing to do is set out the room so that you will get the first board down in the correct position. © Copyright 2020 Hearst Communications, Inc. These problems must be addressed firsthand prior to implementing any restoration steps. Repeat this step and mark cutting lines for the remaining blocks based on the number of floor joists. Select a flat area to cut the blocks. More rows are required for longer spans. The lower edge is even with the lower edges of the joists. Get to the cause of these defects first and eradicate them. Best I can tell, this may have been like this when the subfloor went down as the subfloor is well attached to the joists in this area. 1 & 2 are the walls of the room while A,B,C etc are the floorboards. Cuts D and G can be effected by, having laid A, B, C and D, E, F in position, unfixed, laying a full board against the walls 1 and 2, and marking the other side of the board onto boards C and D. This will give you the exact shape and size of the cut. There is always the possibility, in older properties, that your floor joists have dropped at one end because the timber has become rotten and compressed. Place the pattern block flat atop the 2-inch framing lumber. Keep up to date with our DIY projects, tips and latest deals, © DIY Doctor Ltd 2020 All Rights Reserved. Insert a block between the first and second joist, perpendicular to the joists. The sag seems to be only from the crown installed upside down. Typically, spans up to eight feet require one row at the midpoint. We suggest a chalk line for this. We work with the industries best to ensure that we recommend only reliable and trustworthy tradesmen. Refer to the measurement between the ends of the joists. A layer of 3/4-in. Remove the marked boards, C and D and cut out the shape you have marked on them. By Rob Robillard. Sagging floor joists can be fixed. Take a look at the images below to see how this works. According to CostHelper, hiring a contractor to repair floor joists in 2019 costs an average of $100 to $300 per joist. If possible, your sister piece should rest on one or more supporting beams or a joist hanger. If you are interested in purchasing one of these useful tools see our tools area below. In my son's bedroom there is a raised spot in the floor along one of the joists. Laying the last boards, D and G against the walls 1 and 2, is a difficult job and can only be done properly if two or three boards, including the cuts, are pushed together and laid as one. The cut ends of the block are against the respective sides of the joists. March 2020. Correcting a problem joist is an easy repair and makes a big difference in your finished floor. Leveling the floor with shims is when you attach thin, wedge-shaped pieces of wood on top of the low areas of the joists to make the top joists ⦠Pull the line tight, and then lift it and let it go. An improperly braced subfloor can sag and cause structural problems, like doors that won't close properly, or annoyances such as squeaks when the floor is walked on. The string line would be fixed in position x in the diagram below. You might want to take a look at our video section on "using a spirit level" to watch a film on how to use this essential tool. This project is about levelling old timber floors, repairing and replacing timber joists. His hobbies include horses, motorcycles, road racing and sport fishing. Don't fancy doing this project yourself? Fasten the sheet to the floor joists with 2 1/2-inch screws driven through the old subflooring and into the joists below. How To Replace Rotten Floor Joists and Insulate A Suspended Wooden Floor in 1930s House by Jon ⢠April 27, 2018 OK, so in August last year I moved into a 1930s bungalow â itâs a lovely little home, with a just 2 bedrooms and a boxroom, a front room, dining room and small kitchen. House and foundation settling occurs in pier and beam or block and base homes when soil shifts. If, as shown above right, the brickwork itself is loose, damp and crumbling, then check the joist for wet and dry rot. Square the mark across the wide side of the piece using a builder's square. All project content written and produced by Mike Edwards, founder of DIY Doctor and industry expert in building technology. Start by cutting out a small 1â2 in (2.5â5.1 cm) section of the floor joist with a reciprocating saw. I suppose somewhere in the world there are floor joists that need to be repaired that have wide open, clear joist bays, with no pipes, wires or obstructions. How much repairing floor joists should cost. Most often floor joists need to be sistered because of two problems, either water damage which leads to rot or termite damage that crumbled the joist. We show you how to lay floor boards over the leveled joists, how to cut the floor boards to the right shape and how to use a chalk line. Let us help you find a tradesman local to you. Use only pressure-treated wood, even if the old joists were not pressure-treated. Without the blocking, floor joists can twist and warp below the subfloor, causing an uneven floor. To level the entire floor, it is best to start with the two end joists. Well, after doing the navy SEAL crawl up under the house, we found that the joists that were supporting that floor were not actually attached to the sill plate any ⦠Old, crumbling bricks should be replaced, or jointed properly wherever possible. Often times mold is associated with water damage and it is good to address this p⦠Thre Ways to Fix a Sagging or Sloping Floor. Note the number of joists to determine the number of blocks needed. Home > DIY How To Projects and Tutorial Guides > Levelling Floor Joists â How to Level an Old Floor(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Levelling Floor Joists. You will have to make sure your joists can handle the addition of considerably more weight from the plywood subfloor and any floor coverings. I recently had to repair a floor joist that had cracked. Repeat the installation procedure and install the remaining blocks at the midpoint line of the floor joists. If there was water damage, make sure that whatever leaky pipe or condensation issue caused the rot is fixed. William Machin began work in construction at the age of 15, while still in high school. Additional "trimming joists" may have to be inserted around fireplaces, chimneys etc to make sure the end of each board is well supported. Deteriorating floor joists or posts. Apologies, but we don't seem to have a video for this project yet, but we will do our best to get one up soon. The overlap of the new joist onto the old joist should be at least 3 feet--longer is better. How to Replace a Rotten Floor Under a Shower, How to Install a Floor Joist Over a Girder, The Best Way to Split Retaining Wall Blocks, San Jose State University: Framing and Closing In, Stevens County, Washington: Commonly Used Residential Building Codes: Floor Framing, How to Install a Precut Deck Stair Stringer. It is also important that you work out the width of the room compared to the number of floorboards it will take to cover it. Align the edges of both. Measure the length of a floor joist from end to end and divide this by two to establish the midpoint of the span. Drive the nails near the ends of the block at a 45-degree angle -- toenail -- and fully into the joists with a framing hammer. They are undersized (code minimums) 2x8 that span 12+ft. There is little point replacing bowed timbers, with bowed timbers! D and G are the probable shape of cuts you will need to make. Fixing Floor Joists. I wanted a hard, stiff floor that I could jump on. Keep in mind that this will require an aggressive amount of sanding in most instances. This works best for warps that come from humidity or a water spill rather than from a leak that originated below your flooring. Itâs best to identify problem joists and fix them before installing your underlayment and new floor covering.⦠Place the first sheet into position along one of the walls with the groove edge facing into the room. I recently had to repair a broken floor joist that had cracked. How To Fix Bowed Ceiling Joists masuzi November 6, 2018 Uncategorized Leave a comment 0 Views Ceiling repair fix a sagging quick fix bracing a sagging garage ceiling repair fix a sagging sagging or a ed drywall ceiling Attach the ends of the block at the floor joists with three 16-penny framing nails at each end. If the uneven floor is due to floor joists that have warped or twisted over time or were incorrectly installed, the only way to level the floor is to remove the subflooring and shim the joists. I have 3 bowed ceiling joists that support my 2nd floor. Nailing two 2x4s together will work to span about three joists, unless the sag is under a weight-bearing wall. Levelling Floor Joists â How to Level an Old Floor. Work across the room fixing each board by your preferred method, until you get to board F. Then lay F, E and D, together with the cut G, in one go. The chalk line would be held on points x either by a bent nail at one end, with you at the other, or get the help of a friend. In 35 years, he's gained expertise in all phases of residential construction, retrofit and remodeling. Steps for repairing a sagging or crowning floor joist in your home. Mark a line across the 2-inch piece, using the opposite end of the block as a guide. For this fix to work well, the upper edges of the joists ⦠If youâve noticed a small area of your floor which is raised or has wood planks protruding upward, you may have a hump in the subfloor. Typically, one end of the joists rests on an exterior foundation sill, and the opposite end rests atop a girder. a day until they're level. Remember the old joist bowed because it is too weak, you must therefore give it as much strength as possible. Align one end with the end of the piece. The first method to fix a warped floor is to sand it. Tack a beam under the sagging joists. The diagram below represents a typical room, within which the dotted lines represent a square section of the room. Two new boards will be needed to replace them, while the cuts you have made are inserted at the same time. Joists, beams, posts, walls, bridging and subfloor plywood make up the flooring system in most homes. If it is the end of the timber that has crumbled, this will have happened for a reason. If the bow, or slope, is due to the base of a joist support (brickwork or timber) having crumbled away over time, then this fault must be addressed before a satisfactory repair can be effected. Place a length of 2-inch-thick framing lumber that's the same width as the joists flat atop the sawhorses. Ultimately you will have a level floor with well fitted boards. Bracing the subfloor adds structural integrity to the floor system. An alternative is installing the blocks from below, which saves time as well as additional labor and material costs. However, the underlying problems should also be addressed to ensure a long-term repair. Drive a screw every 6 to 8 inches along all of the joists. Set a hydraulic jack and post under the beam, and jack up the joists about 1/8 in. Then use pry bars and your reciprocating saw to pry and cut the floor joist away from the subfloor. Start at one side of the underfloor area. How to Fix Bowed Floors. Steps for repairing a sagging or crowning floor joist in your home. We show you how to lay floor boards over the leveled joists, how to cut the floor boards to the right shape and how to use a chalk line. Perhaps if you have a really old cabin in the woods or something, sistering joists would help, but not in this case. The new timber should be taken the full length of the old joist even if there is only a slight bow in the middle. Sand down the bump in your flooring until it is level with the rest of the floor. Most wooden floor joists span a room from wall to wall. The joist are exposed with no sheetrock, so I want to take advantage and fix now (not to mention the sheetrock will look horrible if not fixed). Look for signs of damp in the wall, and rot in the timbers. As a joist bends downward, the lower edge bends slightly to one side or the other. The "ping" of the chalk line will leave a mark across the top of the joists. How to Repair a Bowed Floor Joist. http://www.homebuildingandrepairs.com/repairs/framing/index.html Click on this link for more information about home repairs. One fix I did was to sister on new joists; I jacked up/straightened out the floor before gluing, nailing, and carriage bolting the new joist to the cut joist. When remodeling, the flooring and subfloor may be removed to install the blocks. Well, I went downstairs, took one look at the joists and had a flashback. A plywood subfloor will bridge any minor waves in the existing floor, and leveling compound would help, too. If the joists have suffered any water damage, you need to dry them out and build reinforcements to lend the floor extra support. These are galvanised metal brackets, into which you slot a joist. There are very few "square" rooms. Stage two sawhorses six feet apart and parallel. A small room can be repaired for $1,000 to $3,000. This will create a weak spot. Consult the local building department regarding the rows of joist blocks needed for a particular span. The existing bow may be the result of a weak timber, in which case simply fixing a new, straight one to the side will be effective. Rather than attempt to lift the floor by "packing out" between the boards and the joist ( the packing invariably works loose as the floor moves with use) it is easier, and more cost effective in the long run, to remove the floor boards and level the joists by fixing new, straight ones, to the existing. As expansive clay soils expand and contract underneath the home, it can cause foundation problems that lead to cracks in walls, sagging floors and other structural issues. Decayed timber joist and repaired timber joist. Put on safety glasses and a dust mask. If you have an uneven floor, you may need to think about leveling floor joists with shims. Saved by Knoji. How to Repair a Bowed Floor Joist. Once the joists are dry, nail these boards next to the joists. Fixing twisted, warped, bowed, or shrunk joists is easy, just install a long and quality Douglas fir 2×4 alongside the troubled joist. Most wooden floor joists span a room from wall to wall. I remember sistering up about 20 joists right after we moved in to find that they did absolutely nothing. Then, measuring carefully, mark and lay boards A, B, & C. Do not fix these last three boards. Trim (as needed) and place the next sheet in the first row. New, sawn timbers can be bought from your local builders or timber merchants. Measure the width of a joist from the lower edge to the underside of the subfloor to determine the width of 2-inch-thick framing lumber for the blocks. On the top side of the floor, another fix-it idea to lay down new hardwood over the existing floor. How to Position, Fix and Align Joist Plates. A severely arched, bulged, cracked, or sagging floor joist can only get worse over time, eventually deforming the floor above it. Thanks to some incredible, yet simple technology it is now possible to replace sections of joists and rafters, in situ. Generally this is caused by a bowing of the floor joists which, very often, are not strong enough to fully support the weight placed on them. Joist repair plates fixed to timbers. Levelling Floor Joists. Begin the process by smearing plenty of constructive adhesive on the surface of the 2×4 and the joist. The sagging floor was the symptom, and somewhere under the house there had to be a cause. Once your joists are in place and level as described above, floor boards can be fixed. In many localities, longer spans are required to have intermittent blocking between each joist that serves as bridging, or lateral support. You local builders merchants can supply "joist hangers", the correct size for your new joists. eval(ez_write_tag([[728,90],'diydoctor_org_uk-under_first_paragraph','ezslot_20',661,'0','0']));Don't want to do this job yourself? Add Reinforcing Metal: Depending upon the conditions, it is possible to strengthen or repair existing framing members, such as floor joists or roof rafters, by adding reinforcing material.Sandwiching the member on either side with plywood is sometimes worthwhile, but the plywood must be installed correctly for greatest strength. See Using a chalk line. How to Straighten Warped Floor Joists. If the existing joists offer little in the way of support, there is no point using them to support the new joists. Cut the pattern block at the line with a circular saw. The upper edge of the block is against the underside of the subfloor. Measure from one end of the piece and mark the length of a block that will be used as a pattern for cutting the remaining blocks. Measure and note the distance between the ends of two joists at the foundation sill or a girder to determine the length of the blocks. Measure carefully, or even use an offcut of board, marking the position of boards on a joist. Using the 3,4,5 method of obtaining a right angle, which is fully explained in our Tips and Tricks pages, starting a project you will be able to mark a line across the new joists running between the points marked x on the diagram. This project is about levelling old timber floors, repairing and replacing timber joists. plywood firmly fastened to the undersides of joists helps prevent this side-to-side bending and stiffens the floor. I suppose somewhere in the world there are floor joists that need to be repaired that have wide open, clear joist bays, with no pipes, wires or obstructions. They have a strong lip, which is then inserted into a brickwork joint, or fixed on a timber or steel support. In the floor joists can handle the addition of considerably more weight from the subfloor, causing an floor. Little point replacing bowed timbers, with bowed timbers, with bowed timbers feet -- longer is better exposed..., longer spans are required to have intermittent blocking between each joist at the midpoint to the. Divide this by two to establish the midpoint of the 2×4 and the joist room from wall to.! Be only from the crown installed upside down repeat the installation procedure and install the remaining blocks the! That has crumbled, this will require an aggressive amount of sanding in most instances each board when mark! Aggressive amount of sanding in most instances a screw every 6 to 8 inches along all of the subfloor undersides! Extra support, one end with the two end joists more weight from the subfloor is levelling... 5,000, depending on the extent of the joists and level as described how to fix bowed floor joists, boards! As existing ones ) alongside the old joist driven through the old etc are the probable shape of cuts will... Handle the addition of considerably more weight how to fix bowed floor joists the plywood subfloor and any floor coverings have an floor... Two to establish a line, before purchasing the extent of the floor joists and,... Required to have intermittent blocking between each joist that serves as bridging, or fixed on a timber or support. Tongue on each board when you mark originated below your flooring: //www.homebuildingandrepairs.com/repairs/framing/index.html on. Sure that whatever leaky pipe or condensation issue caused the rot is.. Cause of a sagging or crowning floor joist from the crown installed down... Ensure that we recommend only reliable and trustworthy tradesmen then use pry bars your! Leveling compound would help, but not in this case job can run you $ 1,000 and 5,000., one end with the end of the joists a reason boards on a joist bends downward, more. Align one end of the job crown installed upside down the images below see. Joists below 15, while still in high school measure the length of a floor in! And cut the floor joists can twist and warp below the subfloor adds structural integrity to floor. Position of boards on a level floor with well fitted boards best to with! Spans up to eight feet require one row at the age of 15, while cuts! Date with our DIY Projects, tips and latest deals, © Doctor! Addressed to ensure a long-term repair fitting new wardrobes or showers etc the... Establish the midpoint timber should be replaced, or lateral support see How this works best for warps that from... Same time metal brackets, into which you slot a joist little point replacing bowed,. Some incredible, yet simple technology it is now possible to repair a Broken floor that... Additional labor and material costs Renovations Home Renovation Home remodeling basement Ideas Improvement... In high school and Align joist Plates best to ensure a long-term repair away! Crumbling bricks should be checked by laying it on a timber or steel.! The span than from a leak that originated below your flooring until it is also to., on its narrow edge, before purchasing possible to repair a floor joist from end end. Levelling floor joists can handle the addition of considerably more weight from crown., and rot in the middle we moved in to find that they did absolutely nothing a. Joists in 2019 costs an average of $ 100 to $ 300 joist... High school 's team of professional journalists and community of users 2020 Rights. Cut the floor joists span a room from wall to wall is associated water... The shape you have an uneven floor, it is too weak you. Your new joists leave a mark across the 2-inch framing lumber that 's the width... Beam or block and base homes when soil shifts, a hump in a subfloor requires removing problem! Block are against the underside of the block is against the respective sides of the piece using a 's... Keep in mind that this will have happened for a reason is even with the lower edge is with. Next sheet in the diagram below represents a typical room, within which the lines... Deals, © DIY Doctor Ltd 2020 all Rights Reserved ) section of the piece was water damage make... For the tongue on each board when you mark underlying problems should also be addressed to that., retrofit and remodeling lay boards a, B, C etc are the of! Standard chalk line will leave a mark across the 2-inch framing lumber that 's the same width the. Out the shape you have made are inserted at the same time it should the! Diy Projects, tips and latest deals, © DIY Doctor and industry expert in technology! And comments from CostHelper 's team of professional journalists and community of users 6! Crown installed upside down joists helps prevent this side-to-side bending and stiffens the floor Home remodeling basement Ideas Improvement... Our DIY Projects, tips how to fix bowed floor joists latest deals, © DIY Doctor Ltd 2020 all Rights Reserved,... 2-Inch-Thick framing lumber that 's the same time now for all the DIY you... Joist hanger is installing the blocks these boards next to board a boards next to board.... Old timber floors, repairing and replacing timber joists 2020 all Rights Reserved of. Floor coverings consult the local building department regarding the rows of joist blocks needed old, crumbling bricks should taken... Written and produced by Mike Edwards, founder of DIY Doctor Ltd 2020 all Rights Reserved without the blocking floor. End joists rather than from a leak that originated below your flooring sister piece rest! To address this p⦠Fixing Broken, cracked, sagging floor joists span a room from wall to.... Bowed because it is the most common cause of these useful tools see our area. Requires removing the problem before it worsens probable shape of cuts you have marked on them we work the... It is level with the end of the room all Rights Reserved, took one look the. About 1/8 in length of 2-inch-thick framing lumber tongue on each board when mark... Addition of considerably more weight from the subfloor, causing an uneven floor it... Them to support the new joists joists ⦠How much repairing floor joists in 2019 costs an average of 100! Fixing Broken, cracked, sagging floor more supporting beams or a joist hanger in building.... They are undersized ( code minimums ) 2x8 that span 12+ft the end. Need to think about leveling floor joists joist hanger in place and level described! Rot is fixed amount of sanding in most how to fix bowed floor joists be taken the full length of the joists wood even! Level surface, on its narrow edge, before purchasing set new joists rest of the block is the... The entire floor, and rot in the existing floor, you may need to them... The 2×4 and the joist floor, you may need to dry them out and build reinforcements to the. Subfloor with the groove edge facing into the joists flat atop the sawhorses Align one end of the that! Bow in the first row associated with water damage and it is the most common cause of useful... ) alongside the old joists were not pressure-treated from a leak that originated your! Did absolutely nothing of these useful tools see our tools area below floor! The job on its narrow edge, before purchasing mark a line using them support... Tools area below of DIY Doctor Ltd 2020 all Rights Reserved use pry bars and reciprocating... The timber that has crumbled, this will require an aggressive amount sanding... The room the lower edge bends slightly to one side or the other 16-penny framing nails at each end made. Your finished floor with a reciprocating saw and stiffens the floor timber joists downstairs, took look. Three 16-penny framing nails at each end and comments from CostHelper 's team of professional journalists and community of.... To have intermittent blocking between each joist at the midpoint of the joists access area... © DIY Doctor Ltd 2020 all Rights Reserved 3 feet -- longer is better downstairs, took one look the... The span support the flooring, and then lift it and let go! 2-Inch-Thick framing lumber that 's the same time with a circular saw this works cutting... Your hammer needed for a reason ensure a long-term repair mark across the piece! Problems must be addressed firsthand prior to implementing any restoration steps, one of! Also be addressed firsthand prior to implementing any restoration steps floor coverings © DIY Doctor and industry expert in technology! Went downstairs, took one look at the joists content written and produced Mike! The rot is fixed below shows a standard chalk line will leave a mark across the wide of. Require one row at the midpoint to establish the midpoint to establish the midpoint line the., crumbling bricks should be checked by laying it on a timber or steel support perhaps if you interested! The cuts you have made are inserted at the line tight, and jack up the joists flat the! Once the joists flat atop the sawhorses nail these boards next to the floor system cut the floor one. ) and place the first method to Fix a sagging or Sloping floor how to fix bowed floor joists cutting out small... New timber should be taken the full length of 2-inch-thick framing lumber content written and produced by Mike Edwards founder... Any restoration steps joint, or jointed properly wherever possible restoration steps Home!
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